The Masks of Japan
Masks are prevalent in many cultures. It is our
human nature to wish to transend our own existance and masks provide a vehicle
to make that transformation. The mask is the perfect medium to disguise
our true nature, if only momentarily. Recently there were two exhibitions
in here in Los Angeles, one about festivals, the other about the art and
artifacts of noh and kyogen plays. One common element in both is the use
of masks, which prompted this quarter's article: The Masks of Japan.
Throughout Japan's history, masks have been used
in rituals and performances. The performer dons a mask representing a certain
individual, hero, deity, devil, ghost, or legendary animal, depending on
the ritual or performance. Masks have been used in Japan since the Jomon
period 
(10,000 BC- 300BC). Some of these masks were formed from
clay, others were made of cloth. It is unclear as to the use of these masks
other than they played a part in some forms of magic or shamanistic rituals
of those times. They may have been used to cover the faces of the dead or
used as talismans to deflect malevolent spirits. There is some speculation
that perhaps they were votive offerings used to treat medical problems.
The subsequent Yayoi (300BC -AD 300) and Kofun periods (300 - 552) appear
to be a slack period from the lack of artifacts related to masks. There
is a mask fragment that has been dated to the Kofun period. The fragment
is a different wood and constructed differently compared to later gigaku
masks. So it is unlikely that these periods were completely devoid of masks.
The masks that we are the most familiar with are
those used in dance, theater, festivals, and Shinto and Buddhist rituals.
Many of these masks were used in ritualized and religious traditions, specifically
Buddhist, which were brought from the mainland of Asia. Masks are made from
a number of different materials such as: clay, dry lacquer, cloth, paper
and wood. The majority of masks are carved from wood and are painted with
a layer of lacquer, and most are primed with a kaolin clay cover with polychromatic
pigments. The construction of masks has changed very little over the last
five hundred years. The following categories represent the evolution of
Japanese masks.
Gigaku
The oldest existing masks in any quantity are those
used in gigaku. Gigaku is an ancient dance drama that wa
s brought to Japan
from the mainland in the early 7th century. Tradition has it that a person
named Mimashi had brought the dance dramas from what is now Korea, but that
he had learned them from the region of Wu in China. These dances flourished
during the Nara period and continued until the Edo period when the tradition
died out. It appears that these masked dance performances were mime or dance
processionals accompanied by music. There is an excellent set of camphor
wood gigaku masks, about 150 in number, that are in the Shosoin repository
of Todaiji temple. Gigaku performances were sung accompanied by flute, tsutsumi
drum and cymbals. There are existing manuscripts for the music, but there
is little to describe the nature of the gigaku dancing. Gigaku masks are
different from subsequent masks.They cover the head including the ears,
while later masks only cover the face. There are fourteen different gigaku
masks composed i
n a set. Many of the masks have large proboscis. Gigaku
masks were generally made from paulownia wood, although there are examples
of dry lacquer masks. Because gigaku was a dance drama, a more dramatic
expression was carved into the mask. Shadings, and black outlines around
the features heightened that drama. Hair was also pasted on some masks.
Different mask styles include: lion heads, bird-beaked creatures, demons
and superhumans. Gigaku mask designs seemed to have been influenced by a
number of cultures on the mainland including, India, present day Indonesia,
and China.
Bugaku masks
The traditional court music of Japan
is called gagaku and was formalized during the Heian period (792-1185).
Gagaku is comprised of several types of music: togaku, which is music that
came from China's Tang Dynasy; komagaku, which came from what is now Korea;
and music that was already indigenous to Japan. Some of togaku and most
komagaku musical pieces are performed as dance pieces called bugaku. Gagaku
is generally performed with a large orchestra by Asian standards. The orchestra
is composed of hichiriki, a double reed oboe type instrument, different
types of flutes (depend on the music played), a sho, a reed wind instrument
(when togaku is played), hanging taiko drums and a shoko, which is a small
bronze gong. Bugaku is presented on an elevated platform or in a sectioned
off area. The music played for bugaku court dances is very slow in tempo,
perhaps suggesting the pace of life in those times. Bugaku flour
ished
during the 9th century, Heian period . From that time through the Kamakura
period (1185-1332) bugaku was the major performing art in Japan. It spread
from Kyoto to central Japan then throughout Honshu. The first bugaku masks
made during the early Heian period had a naturalistic look but by the end
of the Kamakura period their appearance had become very stylized. Gagaku's
popularity had waned by the end of the Kamakura period.
The masks used in bugaku vary in size and are generally
made of cypress wood, although there is an example of a dry lacquer mask
from the 8th c. These masks, unlike gigaku masks, do not have ears and cover
just the face. They range in size from 7 to 13 inches tall, 6 to 9 inches
wide and 4 to 7 inches deep. The style of carving mirrors the carving of
Buddhist statues and, in fact, some are signed by well known statue carvers.
But the majority of bugaku masks are unsigned. Because bugaku was pure dance
and not a dramatic performance there is less dramatic expression than gigaku
masks, tending instead to be more abstract in expressing emotions and attitudes.
The mask to the right is that of Ryoo.
Gyodo Masks
Gyodo masks are specifically used
for Buddhist outdoor processions. Often these processions were held with
the inauguration of a new temple or a dedication. They represent specific
Buddhist figures, usually bodhisativas, guardian deities, dragon gods, bishamonten,
and specific demons cast out by purification rituals. Typically they are
oversize covering the entire face and above, representing a superhuman or
a diety. Most of the existing examples date from the late Heian period (792-1185)
and into the Muromachi period (1392-1568). The early examples show a definite
influence from the bugaku masks, but later masks took on a more indigenous
look. The mask to the left is a 12th century example of Kendabba, a Buddhist
guardian diety.
Noh and Kyogen Masks
Noh and kyogen masks are the ones with which we
are most familiar. Noh dramas evolved 
from the traditions of sarugaku
(sangaku), dengaku, and other folk agricultural rituals. Sarugaku originally
was a repertoir of performance arts from China, which included acrobatics,
juggling, miming and conjuring. These intermingled with dances and rituals
at shrines and temples. Eventually the dance and performance art of dengaku,
which was associated with agricultural traditions, also merged into sarugaku.
By the 11th century, comedic sketches were incorporated into the set of
performances and the acrobatics were phased out the repertory. As the performance
art evolved, music arrangements, words and gestures began to be standardized.
By the end of the 13th century, sarugaku guilds began to be established,
which would form the basis of the noh tradition. By the Muromachi period,
the dramatic plays became noh plays, and the comedic plays became the comic
interludes known as kyogen. Noh and kyogen became very popular through the
patronage of Kan'ami and Zeami (the leading proponents of noh at that time)
by the Ashikaga Shogun Yoshimitsu. Patronage of noh continued with the successive
rulers of Japan.
It is safe to assume that the evolution of masks
associated with noh and kyogen followed a similar path. A tradition that
grew out of sargaku is okinamai and it is still part of the noh performance
repertory called Shikisaban. The masks used in okinam
ai exhibit the
first signs of the formation of the noh mask. It is evident that these masks
which evolved from the foreign influenced gigaku and bugaku masks had been
transformed into a uniquely Japanese design. Four types of masks are used
in okinamai, three of which have a detached lower jaw which is fastened
to the upper portion with silk cords. Those three are Okina, Sanbaso, and
Chichinojo. It is thought that perhaps these masks evolved from certain
bugaku masks that also had detached jaws. Okina and Sanbaso both have similar
carvings and expressions. When the mask is white it is Okina and when painted
black, it's Sanbaso. There are existing Okina masks which date back to the
Kamakura period (1185-1332). Okina and Sanbaso at some point became the
predominate characters in okinamai, while the other characters and therefore
the masks ceased to be used. These early Okina masks, while not technically
noh masks are obviously the predecessors of noh masks. Okina masks exhibit
a definite folk quality that the early noh masks first displayed. All masks
became very stylized and standardized during the Edo period (1615-1867)
There are about 80 different masks that are essential
for most of the noh plays. But there are well over 200 different masks The
typical noh mask is smaller than the face. They are usually shallow in construction
and carved from hinoki wood. The masks are carved in such a manner that
the expression of the face changes as the shadow and light change with the
slightest movement of the head. This feature is important in noh theater
since the mask must reflect the mood of the character at that moment in
time. But the most important characteristic displayed in every noh mask
is its otherworldly quality. It is that quality that cannot be duplicated
by an actor's own face or through make-up. Only the main character of the
play, called the shite, and his companions wear masks, peripheral characters
do not. The shite also did not wear a mask when portraying livings persons.
Noh masks are variations of gods, demons, spirits, and young middle aged
and old men and women. There are many plays in which the main character
changes into another mask which is supposed to represent the character's
true nature. It is the shite who chooses which mask to use for the performance.
Once the decision is made, the rest of the costuming is based on that mask.
Choosing the mask is a very important process since it dictates the intrepretation
the shite places in the character. The mask supersedes the actor's individuality
or any intrepretation he personally would put into the performance.
Kyogen play masks exhibit a very playful mood.
They display either a very joyful expression or one with distorted absurd
facial features such as bulging eyes or protruded mouths. There were several
carving families that specialized in noh and kyogen masks. The most well
known family was the Deme family and its branches, who were the main mask
makers during the Edo period. Below are several examples of noh and kyogen
masks:
Hannya
The hannya mask is the vengeful and
jealous woman turned demon. Pointed horns, metallic eyes and teeth, and
the expression all exhibit the full wrath, anger and resentment of her nature.
The origins of hannya masks may have come from early snake masks but most
likely the image was taken from painted hand scrolls of stories and legends
of the Muromachi period. In fact one of the oldest hannya masks is dated
1558. Of course the most prominent feature is the horns. Even to this day
a hand gesture of two index fingers sticking up from a man's forehead is
an indication that his wife is mad at him or jealous. There are many variations
of hannya masks. The coloring of the face also signifies the degree of passion
in the demon's anger. For example, a more reddish color indicates strong
resentment and anger and is used in such plays as Dodoji and Kurozuka, whereas
a paler color would be more appropriate for Aoi-no-ue. Dodoji is the story
of unrequited love between a woman and a priest of Dodoji (temple). She
turns into a demonic serpent who wraps her body around the temple bell consuming
it and the priest in the process.
Ko-omote
Ko-omote literally means small face.
This mask was one of the early masks in the noh repertory, mostly due to
the fact that men needed women's masks more than they needed men's masks
to pull off the performance. It shows the beautiful face of a young woman
whose nature is calm and collected. The face is reflective of the classic
Heian beauty: eyebrows are shaved, hair is neatly groomed and in place,
and her teeth are blackened. This face shows a woman coming of age yet,
idealizes the naivete of youth. There many variations to these masks, where
cheeks are made fuller and lips are parted more. The hair placement is important:
the three strands of hair do not overlap which is an important convention
in ko-omote masks. They represent a clm pysche. The ko-omote can exhibit
a higher degree of sensuality dependent on the features carved and painted
into the mask. From this base, masks can be carved to show an increase in
age by setting the eyes deeper. Other women masks are the shakumi and fukai,
which depict middle aged women. Eye openings also reflect age, young woman
masks have square openings, older woman masks have half circle openings.
Otoko
Otoko masks are young man masks. This particular
one is called waka-otoko and represents a youth who is afforded the benefits
of a high status in life, although the hair painted on the sides indicates
that he is not aristocracy. Most likely this mask would be used in plays
that require a young man of determination, perhaps a warrior. There are
also numerous varitions on the young men masks. Some show a more aristocratic
bearing. As with young women masks, otoko can show the aging and life experience
process by setting the eyes deeper and the use of more deepening lines in
the brow and mouth. Masks were not worn for male roles in the early stages
of noh. However as young and middle aged male masks were developed with
their otherworldly characteristics they fit perfectly with the nature of
noh.
Uba
Uba masks are old woman masks. Typically they are
used in the noh play Takasago. Takasago is a play about the spirit caretakers
of the pines found at Takasago and Sumiyoshi, -Jo, the old man, and Uba,
the old woman. They are usually shown with a broom and and rake. The play
exhalts the virtues of a long and faithful union and passages from the play
are read at many marriage ceremonies. It is obvious from the gray hair and
the lines and furrows carved into the mask that this is a woman who has
experienced a great deal in her long life. Although the Uba mask was origianlly
made for Takasago it came to be used in other plays depicting ordinary old
women.
Shikami
Shikami masks are, of course, demon
masks. The large furrowed brow, the fanglike teeth and snarling mouth exhibit
a ferocious manner that would put fear into anyone. The red complexion indicates
the degree of rage expressed by the demon, as with the hannya mask. The
eyes and teeth are metallic gold.
Chujo
Chujo is another youthful man's
mask. But this mask shows the bearing of an aristocrat of the classic Heian
period. The mask's light complexion, the high painted eyebrows and painted
black teeth are typical of a court nobleman of that period. It is said that
the mask represented Ariwara no Narihira, a famous Heian poet whose court
rank was middle captain of the Inner Guard, chujo, hence the name of the
mask. The Chujo mask is generally used to represent Prince Genji in The
Tale of Genji. The expression is one of melancholly which is befittting
for that role. The mask can also be worn to represent other courtiers
Usobuki
The Usobuki mask is one of the numerous
masks used in kyogen, although the number of masks in kyogen is much less
than noh. Kyogen plays are the comic interludes between noh dramas. They
humerously reflect old tales and the problems of the human condition. Therefore,
these masks reflect that humorous aspect. They usually exhibit amusing or
absurd, exaggerated expressions. Usobuki is one of the type of masks with
an exaggerated expession. The name of the mask can be interepreted several
ways: an expression of innocence, whistling, or blowing on a fire are several
of those. The crossed, bulging eyes, the puckered protruding mouth and up
turned whiskers all contribute to a sense of the absurdity of life. Actors
wearing usobuki masks can represent both human characters and the spirits
of animals and fragile insects such as moths mosquitoes and cicadas.
In conclusion
Antique masks are almost impossible to purchase
because they are either in museums or, in the case of noh masks, are handled
down in the acting family from generation to generation. Gigaku mask reproductions
have been available through temples as souvenirs for many years. Noh mask
reproductions can be purchased in antique stores. We hope that this brief
article on masks helps readers understand the history and development of
masks in Japan.
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